Prakrit

Introduction

Prakrit is a group of vernacular classical Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 5th century BCE to the 12th century CE. The term Prakrit is usually applied to the middle period of Middle Indo-Aryan languages, excluding Pali.

The languages that have been labeled "Prakrit" in modern times include the following:

• Apabhraṃśa
• Ardhamāgadhı̄
• Dramili
• Elu
• Gandhari
• Gaudi
• Kamarupi
• Magadhi
• Maharashtri
• Odra
• Paishachi
• Pali
• Shauraseni
• Khasa

Not all of these languages were actually called "Prakrit" in the ancient period.

Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali

The relation between Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Pali, can be simplified like this:

• Parent → Offspring: Sanskrit is the source language; Prakrits are evolved, spoken forms.
• Formal → Vernacular: Sanskrit is formal/literary; Prakrits are informal/spoken.
• Conservative → Simplified: Sanskrit preserves older phonology and grammar; Prakrits simplify and adapt these features.

Pāli belongs to Prakrit languages and is sometimes called a “literary Prākrit.”

The verb

Most Prakrits (like Ardhamāgadhī, Śaurasenī, Māhārāṣṭrī) preserve only:

• Present indicative
• Imperative
• Past/Perfect (simplified)
• Middle voice mostly disappears.

Verbs are usually grouped into two conjugations:

1. Athematic verbs (irregular, like “to be,” “to go”)
2. Thematic verbs (with stem vowel -a-)

Sample Athematic Verb: √bhū (to be)

Present Indicative

Person	Māhārāṣṭrī	Śaurasenī (variant)
1st sg.	homi	homiṁ
2nd sg.	hosi	—
3rd sg.	hodi	hoi
1st pl.	homo / homa	—
2nd pl.	hoha / hohaṁ	—
3rd pl.	honti	—

Notes: homi, hosi, hodi, honti are the everyday literary forms; vowel quality and final -n/-m vary by manuscript and dialect.

Imperative

Person	Māhārāṣṭrī	Variants
2nd sg.	hohi	hahu
2nd pl.	hoha / hotha	—
3rd sg.	hotu / hou	—
3rd pl.	hontu	—

Imperative forms are rarer in inscriptions; dramatic language (Śaurasenī) occasionally prefers shorter forms like hou.

Past / Preterite (common Prakrit realizations)

Person	Common Prakrit forms	Remarks
1st sg.	hosiṁ	often used in place of a Sanskrit perfect
2nd sg.	hosi	identical to present 2sg in some texts
3rd sg.	hō / āsī	dialectal variation (hō common)
1st pl.	homa / homaṁ	collective past forms
2nd pl.	hoha	—
3rd pl.	honti / āsuṁ	often honti in literary texts

Many Prakrit texts use participle + auxiliary or periphrastic constructions instead of inherited Sanskrit aorist/perfect endings.

Infinitive & Participles

Form	Prakrit	Gloss / Comment
Infinitive	hoviduṁ / hovidu	‘to be’
Present Participle	honta	‘being’
Past Participle	hūa / hūṇa	‘been’

Sample Athematic Verb: √kar (to do)

Present Indicative

Person	Form
1st sg.	karomi
2nd sg.	karosi
3rd sg.	karoi
1st pl.	karomo
2nd pl.	karoho
3rd pl.	karanti

These endings (-mi, -si, -i; -mo, -ho, -nti) are typical for thematic verbs.

Imperative

Person	Form
2nd sg.	karehi
2nd pl.	karoha / karotha
3rd sg.	karotu
3rd pl.	karontu

The imperative 2nd sg. may also appear as karahu in some dialects.

Past / Preterite

Person	Form
1st sg.	kariṁ (I did)
2nd sg.	karī
3rd sg.	karii / karīa
1st pl.	karimo
2nd pl.	kariho
3rd pl.	kariṁti

Past forms often derive from participles + endings; manuscripts vary between short and long vowels.

Infinitive & Participles

Form	Prakrit	Gloss
Infinitive	kariduṁ	‘to do’
Present Participle	karanta / karamta	‘doing’
Past Participle	kata	‘done’

Verbs Grouped by Classification

Prakrit Verb Classification — Lemma + 3rd person singular

This compilation groups verbs by their primary Prakrit conjugational behaviour and gives for each entry a lemma (dictionary-style citation form) and the common 3rd person singular present form attested in Māhārāṣṭrī / Śaurasenī texts. Spellings show common variants; this is an extensive (but not exhaustive) working list intended for reference and classroom use.

Key to columns

Lemma: citation form (often infinitive or dictionary stem). 3sg.: common 3rd person singular present-tense form in Prakrit.

1. Thematic -ai verbs (regular thematic)

Lemma	3sg.	Gloss
kar- / karn-	karoi	to do, make
gam- / jā-	jāi	to go
piba-	pivai	to drink
khād- / khā-	khāi	to eat
dā- / dad-	dei	to give
grāh- / gṛh- / lē-	lāi	to take, seize
paṭh- / paḍh-	paḍhai	to read, study
sev-	sevai	to serve
pass-	passai	to see
suṇ- / śru-	suṇai	to hear
vac- / vāc- / bol-	bolai	to speak
gaṇ-	gaṇai	to count
dṛś- / dikh-	dikkhai	to appear, be seen
sthā-	thāi	to stand
ni√sīd-	nisīdi	to sit
ut'thā- / uṭṭhā-	uṭṭhai	to rise, get up
dhāv-	dhāvai	to run
gā-	gāai	to sing
nac-	naccai	to dance
pucch-	pucchai	to ask
uttar-	uttarai	to answer
has-	hasai	to laugh
roi-	roi	to cry, weep
sov-	sovai	to sleep
jāg-	jāgai	to wake
dhṛ- / dhāra-	dhārai	to hold, bear
rakkh-	rakkhai	to protect
bandh-	bandhai	to bind
chhod-	chhoddai	to leave, abandon
lābh- / labh-	labhai	to obtain
up- / āg-	āi	to come
pat-	patai	to fall
prah- / parih-	pariharai	to avoid
āhr- / āh-	āhrai	to bring (rare)
cint-	cintai	to think

2. Athematic / Short-stem -i verbs (irregulars & fossilized)

Lemma	3sg.	Gloss
as- / asti-	hoi / hodi	to be / to become (copula)
bhū-	homi	to be / become (variant)
śru- / suṇ-	suṇai	to hear (alternative)
vid-	veidi	to know (rare)
jīv-	jīvai	to live
mar-/mṛ-	marai	to die
ud-	udai	to rise, go up (alt.)
bhaj-	bhajai	to share, partake
ved-	vedi	to know (seldom)
vidh-	vidhai	to determine, appoint

3. Contracted / highly irregular high-frequency verbs

Lemma	3sg.	Gloss
as / asti	hoi	to be
ān- / āg-	āi	to come
labh-	lāi	to take / get
dā-	dei	to give
i- (impersonal forms)	iddai	impers./existential (var.)
gam-	gai / jāi	to go
gacch-	gai	to go (colloquial)

4. Causative formations (common -āvei / -āpai)

Lemma (base)	3sg. causative	Gloss
kar-	karāvei / karāpai	to make cause to do
gam-	gamāvei	to send, cause to go
suṇ-	suṇāvei	to proclaim, cause to hear
paṭh-	paṭhāvei	to cause to read/teach
dā-	dāāvei	to cause to give (rare)

5. Middle / Passive-like forms (stative/resultant)

Lemma	3sg.	Gloss
mucch- / mucc-	muccai	to be released
labh-	laddhai	to be obtained
bhuj-	bhujai	to be eaten (passive sense)
kṛt- / kata-	kata / kati	done / made (result)

6. Verbs with irregular 3sg. endings or vowel changes

Lemma	3sg.	Gloss
as- / bhū-	homi / hoi / hodi	to be / exist
gacch-	gai / jāi	to go
śru-	suṇai / uṇai	to hear / learn
labh-	lāi / labhai	to get / take
dah- / dāh-	dai	to burn (variant)

7. Additional working inventory (mixed classes)

Below is a larger grab-bag of verbs commonly cited in Prakrit glossaries, showing typical 3sg. forms; these include thematic, athematic, contracted, and dialect variants.

Lemma	3sg.	Gloss
ā-	āi	to come
āj-	ājai	to go near
ubh-	ubhai	to wake (alt.)
vah- / vaha-	vāhī / vahi	to carry
vibh-	vibhai	to divide
vid-	veidi	to know
vic-	vicai	to examine
vih-	vihai	to abandon (alt.)
vik-	vikai	to sell
vin-	vinai	to remove
vṛ-	vṛi	to cover, choose
śak-	śakai	to be able
śodh-	śodhai	to search
śās-	śāsai	to rule
sṛj-	sṛjai	to throw, release
suk-	sukai	to please
smṛ-	smṛi	to remember
sm-	smai	to smile (var.)
ruc-	rucai	to like
rṇ-	rṇai	to owe
rañj-	rañjai	to stain
prah-	prahai	to throw forth
pā- / pān-	pivai	to drink (alt.)
pā- (eat alt.)	khāi	to eat (dial.)
pat-	patai	to fall
pal-	palai	to shake
pa- (move)	pai	to go (alt.)
paj-	pajai	to protect
ov-	ovai	to increase (rare)
oṭh-	oṭhai	to rise (alt.)
ubhay-	ubhai	to both (verbal root used in compounds)
tṛ-	tṛi	to cross
tan-	tanai	to stretch
tad-	tadai	to touch
tar-	tarai	to save, cross
sthā-	sthāi	to stand (alt.)
sm-	smai	to remember/smile (var.)
scand-	scandai	to leap
sal-	salai	to move

Notes: Spellings and exact 3sg. forms vary by manuscript, dialect (Māhārāṣṭrī vs Śaurasenī vs Ardhamāgadhī), and context. This compilation aims to group verbs by the most common conjugational behaviour and show typical 3rd-singular realisations; it is suitable as a study resource but should be cross-checked against primary grammars (Vararuci, Hemacandra) and lexica for philological work.

Verblist

अक्खइ, अणुगच्छइ, अत्थि, आणंदेदि, उड्डेइ, उवविसइ, एदि, कंदइ, कंददि, कुप्पइ, खंचइ, चट्टेइ, जलइ, जोडेइ, तुस्सइ, तूसइ, थुक्कइ, दुक्खदि, दुक्खेइ, दुक्खेदि, धाअइ, पढइ, पसरइ, पहुच्चइ, पहुवइ, बिउणेइ, बोल्लइ, भमइ, भमदि, रुअइ, रुवइ, रुव्वइ, रोअइ, रोयइ, रोवइ, रोसइ, लहदि, लुंपइ, लुढइ, लुप्पइ, सक्कइ, सिंचइ, सिव्वइ, हसइ, हसदि, ಉವವಿಸಇ, ಪಿವಇ, ಬೊಲ್ಲಇ, 𑀅𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀇, 𑀅𑀘𑁆𑀙𑀇, 𑀅𑀘𑁆𑀙𑀤𑀺, 𑀅𑀡𑀼𑀕𑀘𑁆𑀙𑀇, 𑀅𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺, 𑀆𑀇𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀇, 𑀆𑀡𑀁𑀤𑁂𑀤𑀺, 𑀆𑀡𑁂𑀇, 𑀆𑀡𑁂𑀤𑀺, 𑀉𑀟𑁆𑀟𑁂𑀇, 𑀉𑀩𑁆𑀪𑁂𑀇, 𑀉𑀯𑀮𑀓𑁆𑀔𑁂𑀇, 𑀉𑀯𑀯𑀺𑀲𑀇, 𑀏𑀇, 𑀏𑀤𑀺, 𑀑𑀮𑀁𑀟𑁂𑀇, 𑀓𑀁𑀤𑀇, 𑀓𑀁𑀤𑀤𑀺, 𑀓𑀟𑁆𑀠𑀇, 𑀓𑀠𑀇, 𑀓𑀥𑁂𑀤𑀺, 𑀓𑀭𑁂𑀇, 𑀓𑀭𑁂𑀤𑀺, 𑀓𑀮𑁂𑀤𑀺, 𑀓𑀳𑁂𑀇, 𑀓𑀼𑀚𑁆𑀛𑀇, 𑀓𑀼𑀧𑁆𑀧𑀇, 𑀔𑀁𑀘𑀇, 𑀔𑀡𑀇, 𑀔𑀡𑀤𑀺, 𑀔𑀸𑀅𑀇, 𑀔𑁂𑀮𑀇, 𑀔𑁂𑀮𑀤𑀺, 𑀕𑀡𑁂𑀇, 𑀕𑀡𑁆𑀳𑀇, 𑀕𑀳𑀇, 𑀕𑀸𑀅𑀇, 𑀖𑀟𑀇, 𑀘𑀝𑁆𑀝𑁂𑀇, 𑀘𑀲𑀇, 𑀘𑀺𑀁𑀢𑁂𑀇, 𑀙𑀸𑀬𑀇, 𑀙𑀺𑀓𑁆𑀓𑀇, 𑀙𑀼𑀝𑁆𑀝𑀇, 𑀙𑀼𑀝𑁆𑀝𑀤𑀺, 𑀙𑀼𑀯𑀇, 𑀙𑀼𑀯𑀤𑀺, 𑀙𑁄𑀟𑁂𑀇, 𑀙𑁄𑀟𑁂𑀤𑀺, 𑀚𑀕𑁆𑀕𑀇, 𑀚𑀮𑀇, 𑀚𑀸𑀇, 𑀚𑀸𑀡𑀇, 𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀇, 𑀚𑀼𑀚𑁆𑀛𑀇, 𑀚𑁂𑀤𑀺, 𑀚𑁄𑀟𑁂𑀇, 𑀝𑀼𑀝𑁆𑀝𑀇, 𑀠𑀮𑀇, 𑀡𑀘𑁆𑀘𑀇, 𑀡𑀘𑁆𑀘𑀤𑀺, 𑀡𑀝𑁆𑀝𑀇, 𑀡𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀇, 𑀡𑁂𑀇, 𑀡𑁂𑀤𑀺, 𑀢𑀘𑁆𑀙𑀇, 𑀢𑀫𑁆𑀫𑀇, 𑀢𑀼𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀇, 𑀢𑀽𑀲𑀇, 𑀢𑁂𑀅𑀇, 𑀢𑁄𑀟𑁂𑀇, 𑀣𑀼𑀓𑁆𑀓𑀇, 𑀤𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀸𑀯𑀇, 𑀤𑀺𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀇, 𑀤𑀼𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀤𑀺, 𑀤𑀼𑀓𑁆𑀔𑁂𑀇, 𑀤𑀼𑀓𑁆𑀔𑁂𑀤𑀺, 𑀤𑁂𑀇, 𑀥𑀸𑀅𑀇, 𑀥𑀸𑀇, 𑀥𑀸𑀯𑀇, 𑀧𑀟𑀇, 𑀧𑀟𑀤𑀺, 𑀧𑀠𑀇, 𑀧𑀠𑀸𑀯𑁂𑀇, 𑀧𑀮𑁆𑀮𑀝𑁆𑀝𑀇, 𑀧𑀰𑀮𑀤𑀺, 𑀧𑀲𑀭𑀇, 𑀧𑀲𑀭𑀤𑀺, 𑀧𑀳𑀼𑀘𑁆𑀘𑀇, 𑀧𑀳𑀼𑀧𑁆𑀧𑀇, 𑀧𑀳𑀼𑀯𑀇, 𑀧𑀸𑀟𑁂𑀇, 𑀧𑀸𑀮𑁂𑀇, 𑀧𑀸𑀲𑀇, 𑀧𑀺𑀯𑀇, 𑀧𑀼𑀁𑀙𑀇, 𑀧𑀼𑀘𑁆𑀙𑀇, 𑀧𑀼𑀡𑀇, 𑀧𑀼𑀲𑀇, 𑀧𑁂𑀘𑁆𑀙𑀇, 𑀨𑀼𑀓𑁆𑀓𑀇, 𑀩𑀁𑀥𑀇, 𑀩𑀺𑀉𑀡𑁂𑀇, 𑀩𑀼𑀚𑁆𑀛𑀇, 𑀩𑁄𑀮𑁆𑀮𑀇, 𑀪𑀁𑀚𑀇, 𑀪𑀡𑀇, 𑀪𑀫𑀇, 𑀪𑀫𑀤𑀺, 𑀪𑀺𑀟𑀇, 𑀪𑀻𑀟𑀇, 𑀪𑁂𑀮𑁂𑀇, 𑀫𑀤𑁆𑀤𑀇, 𑀫𑀭𑀇, 𑀫𑀸𑀭𑁂𑀇, 𑀫𑀼𑀁𑀘𑀇, 𑀫𑀼𑀚𑁆𑀛𑀇, 𑀭𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀇, 𑀭𑀼𑀅𑀇, 𑀭𑀼𑀯𑀇, 𑀭𑀼𑀯𑁆𑀯𑀇, 𑀭𑀽𑀲𑀇, 𑀭𑁄𑀅𑀇, 𑀭𑁄𑀲𑀇, 𑀮𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀇, 𑀮𑀳𑀤𑀺, 𑀮𑀺𑀳𑀇, 𑀮𑀼𑀁𑀧𑀇, 𑀮𑀼𑀓𑁆𑀓𑀇, 𑀮𑀼𑀠𑀇, 𑀮𑀼𑀧𑁆𑀧𑀇, 𑀯𑀝𑁆𑀝𑀤𑀺, 𑀯𑀳𑀇, 𑀯𑀸𑀇, 𑀯𑀺𑀳𑀟𑀇, 𑀰𑀼𑀡𑁂𑀤𑀺, 𑀲𑀁𑀩𑀼𑀚𑁆𑀛𑀇, 𑀲𑀁𑀯𑀝𑁆𑀝𑁂𑀇, 𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀓𑀇, 𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀓𑀡𑁄𑀤𑀺, 𑀲𑀭𑀇, 𑀲𑀺𑀁𑀘𑀇, 𑀲𑀺𑀓𑁆𑀔𑀇, 𑀲𑀺𑀚𑁆𑀚𑀇, 𑀲𑀺𑀯𑁆𑀯𑀇, 𑀲𑀼𑀡𑀇, 𑀲𑀼𑀡𑁂𑀤𑀺, 𑀲𑁄𑀳𑀤𑀺, 𑀳𑀲𑀇, 𑀳𑀲𑀤𑀺, 𑀳𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀇, 𑀳𑁄𑀇.